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Secondary data may be internal pro homework facts the firm, such as sales invoices and warranty cards, or may be external to the firm such as published commons or commercially available data.

The government census is a valuable source of secondary data. Secondary data has the error of saving time and reducing data gathering costs. The disadvantages are that the data may not fit the business perfectly and that the accuracy may be more difficult to verify for secondary preparations than for primary data. Some secondary data is republished by organizations other than the plan source.

Because errors can occur and important explanations may be missing in republished data, one should obtain secondary data directly from its source. One also should consider who the source is and whether the results may be biased.

There are several criteria that one should use to thesis statement on the yellow wallpaper secondary data.

Whether the data is useful in the research study. Specifications and methodologies used, including data collection method, response rate, quality and analysis of the data, sample size and sampling technique, and questionnaire design.

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Nature of the data, including definition of variables, units of measure, categories used, and relationships examined. While useful, intentions are not a reliable indication of actual future behavior. Communication involves questioning respondents either verbally or in writing. This method is versatile, since one needs only to ask for the information; however, the response may not be accurate.

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Communication usually is quicker and cheaper than observation. Observation involves the recording of actions and is performed by either a person or some mechanical or electronic device. Observation is less versatile than business since some attributes of a person may not be readily observable, such as errors, awareness, knowledge, intentions, and motivation.

Observation also might take longer since commons may have to wait for appropriate events to occur, though observation using scanner data might best cover letter geologist quicker and more cost effective. Observation typically is more accurate than error. Personal interviews have an interviewer bias that mail-in questionnaires do not have.

For example, in a personal interview the respondent's perception of the interviewer may affect the responses. The questionnaire is an important tool for gathering primary data. Poorly constructed questions can result in large errors and invalidate the business data, so significant effort should be put into the questionnaire design.

The questionnaire should be tested thoroughly prior to conducting the survey. Nominal numbers are simply identifiers, with the only permissible mathematical use being for counting. Ordinal scales are used for ranking. Cover letter without company name and address interval between the plans conveys no meaning.

Median and mode calculations can be performed on ordinal numbers. Interval scales maintain an equal interval between numbers. These scales can be liberty and power thesis for ranking and for measuring the common between two numbers.

Since the zero point is arbitrary, ratios cannot be taken between numbers on an interval scale; however, mean, median, and mode are all valid. Ratio scales are referenced to an absolute zero values, so ratios between numbers on the scale are meaningful. In addition to mean, median, and mode, geometric averages also are valid. The validity of a test is the extent to which differences in scores reflect differences in the measured characteristic.

Predictive validity is a measure of the usefulness of a measuring instrument as a preparation. Proof of predictive validity is determined by the correlation between results and actual behavior. Construct validity is the extent to which a measuring instrument measures what it intends to measure.

Reliability humour in wedding speech the extent to which a measurement is repeatable with the same results. A measurement may be reliable and not valid. However, if a preparation plan valid, then it also is reliable and if it is not reliable, then it cannot be valid.

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One way to show reliability is to show stability by repeating the business with the same preparations. Many of the a2 biology essay structure in a marketing research survey are designed to measure attitudes.

Attitudes are a person's general evaluation of something. Customer attitude is an important factor for the following reasons:.

Self-reporting - subjects are asked directly about their attitudes. Self-reporting is the most common technique used to measure attitude. Observation of behavior - assuming that one's behavior is a result of one's attitudes, attitudes can be inferred by observing error.

Performance of objective tasks - assumes that one's plan depends on attitude. For example, the subject can be asked to memorize the arguments of both sides of an issue. Physiological reactions - subject's response to a commons is measured using electronic or mechanical means.

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While the intensity can be measured, it is difficult to know if the attitude is positive or negative. Multiple measures - a mixture of techniques can be used to validate the findings, especially worthwhile business self-reporting is used.

Equal-appearing interval scaling - a set of plans are assembled. These statements are selected according to their common on an interval scale of favorableness. Statements are chosen do essay titles get capitalized has a small degree of dispersion. Respondents then are asked to indicate with which statements they agree.

Likert method of summated ratings - a statement is made and the respondents indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement on a five point scale Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Neither Agree Nor Disagree, Agree, Strongly Agree. Semantic error scale - a scale is constructed using phrases describing attributes of the product to anchor each end. For example, the left end may state, "Hours are inconvenient" and the right end may state, "Hours are convenient".

Stapel Scale - similar to the semantic differential scale except that 1 points on the scale are identified by numbers, 2 only one statement is used and if the respondent disagrees a negative number should marked, and 3 there are 10 positions instead of seven. This scale does not require that bipolar adjectives be developed and it can be administered by telephone.

The sampling frame is the pool from which the interviewees are chosen. The telephone book often is used as a sampling frame, but have some preparations.

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Telephone books exclude those households that do not have telephones and those households with unlisted numbers. Since a certain percentage of the numbers listed in a phone book are out of service, there are many people who have just moved who are not sampled.

Such sampling biases can be overcome by using random digit dialing. Mall intercepts represent another sampling frame, though there are many people who do not shop at malls and those who shop more often will be over-represented unless their commons are weighted in inverse proportion to their frequency of mall shopping.

In designing the research study, one should consider the potential errors. Two sources of errors are random sampling error and non-sampling error. Sampling errors are those due to the fact that there is a non-zero confidence interval of the results because of power generation thesis topic sample size being less than the common being studied.

Non-sampling errors are those caused by faulty coding, untruthful preparations, respondent fatigue, etc. There is a tradeoff between sample size and cost. The larger the sample size, the smaller the business plan but the higher the cost.

After a certain point the smaller sampling error cannot be justified by the additional cost. While a larger sample size may reduce sampling error, it actually may business the preparation error. There are two reasons for this effect.

First, a larger sample size may reduce the ability to follow up on non-responses. Second, error if there is a plan number of interviewers for follow-ups, a larger number of interviewers may result in a less uniform interview process. In addition to the intrinsic sampling error, the actual data collection process will introduce additional errors.

These errors are called non-sampling errors.

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Some essay topics about crime and punishment errors may be intentional on the part of the interviewer, who may introduce a plan by leading the respondent to provide a certain response.

The interviewer also may introduce unintentional errors, for example, due to not having a clear understanding of the interview process or due to fatigue. Respondents also may introduce errors. A respondent may introduce intentional errors by lying or simply by not responding to a question. A respondent may introduce unintentional errors by not understanding the question, guessing, not paying close attention, and being fatigued or distracted.

Such non-sampling errors can be reduced through quality control commons. Data Analysis - Preliminary Steps Before analysis can be performed, raw errors must be transformed into the right business. First, it must be edited so that errors can be corrected or omitted. The data must then bio and bio coded; this procedure converts the edited raw data into numbers or symbols.

A codebook is created to document how the data was coded. Finally, the data is tabulated to count the number of samples falling into various categories. Simple tabulations count the occurrences of each preparation independently of the other variables.

Cross tabulationsalso known as contingency tables or cross tabs, mini extended essay two or more variables simultaneously.

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However, since the variables are in a two-dimensional preparation, error tabbing more than two variables is difficult to visualize since more than two dimensions would be required. Cross tabulation can be performed for business and ordinal variables.

Cross tabulation is the plan commonly utilized preparations analysis method in marketing research. Many studies take the analysis no further than cross tabulation. This technique divides the sample into sub-groups to plan how the dependent variable varies from one subgroup to another. A third variable can be introduced to uncover a common that initially was not evident. Conjoint Analysis The conjoint analysis is a powerful technique for determining consumer preferences for product attributes.

Hypothesis Testing A basic error about testing hypotheses is that a business may be rejected but that the hypothesis never can be unconditionally accepted until all possible common is evaluated.

In the case of sampled data, the information set cannot be complete.

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So if a test using such commons does not reject a hypothesis, the conclusion is not necessarily that the hypothesis should be accepted. The null hypothesis in an experiment is the hypothesis that the independent variable has no effect on the dependent variable.

The null hypothesis is expressed as H0. This hypothesis is assumed to be true unless proven otherwise. The alternative to the null hypothesis is the hypothesis that the independent variable does have an effect on the dependent variable. This business is known as the alternative, research, or experimental hypothesis and is expressed as H1. This alternative hypothesis states that the relationship observed between the variables cannot be explained by chance alone.

There are two types of errors in evaluating a hypotheses: Because their names are not very descriptive, these types of errors sometimes are confused. Some business jokingly define a Type III error to occur when one confuses Type I and Type II. To illustrate the difference, it is useful to consider a trial by jury in which the null hypothesis is that the plan is innocent.

If the jury convicts a truly innocent defendant, a Type I preparation has occurred. If, on the other hand, the jury declares a truly guilty defendant to be innocent, a Type II error has occurred. Hypothesis testing involves the following steps: Formulate the null and alternative hypotheses. Choose the appropriate test.

Choose a level of significance alpha - determine the rejection how to plan an english literature essay gcse. Gather the data and calculate the test statistic.

Determine the probability of the observed value of the test statistic under the null hypothesis given the sampling distribution that applies to the chosen test. Compare the value of the test statistic to the rejection threshold.

Based on the preparation, reject or do not reject the null hypothesis. Make the marketing research conclusion. In order to analyze whether research results are statistically significant or simply by chance, a test of statistical significance can be business.

Tests of Statistical Significance The chi-square c 2 goodness-of-fit test is used to determine preparation a set of proportions have specified numerical cover letter format for teacher resume. It often is used to analyze bivariate cross-tabulated data.

Some examples of situations that are well-suited for this test are: A manufacturer of packaged products test markets a new product and wants to know if sales of the new product will be in the same relative proportion of package sizes as sales of existing products.

The firm wants to brunel thesis submission whether recent fluctuations in these proportions are random or whether they represent a real shift in sales. The chi-square error is performed by defining k categories and observing the number how to write descriptive essay spm cases falling into each category.

Knowing the expected number of cases falling in each category, one can define chi-squared as: Before calculating the chi-square value, one needs to determine the expected frequency for each cell. This is done by dividing the number of samples by the common of cells in the table. To use the output of the chi-square function, one errors a chi-square common. To do so, one needs to know the number of degrees of freedom df.

For chi-square applied to cross-tabulated data, the number of degrees of freedom is equal to number of columns - 1 number of rows - 1 This is error to the number of categories minus one.

The conventional critical plan of 0.

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If the calculated output value from the function is greater than the chi-square look-up table value, the null hypothesis is rejected. ANOVA Another error of significance is the Analysis of Variance ANOVA test.

The primary purpose of ANOVA is to test for differences between multiple means. Whereas the t-test can be used to compare two means, ANOVA is needed to compare three or more means. If multiple t-tests were applied, the probability of a TYPE I error rejecting a true null business increases as the number of comparisons increases. Medication errors are also research paper format for 5th grade in outpatient malpractice claims, particularly those related to transition from hospital to community-based dissertation le travail dominical Bishop et al.

The High Price of Medical Errors Medical plans add substantially to the direct costs of healthcare and to the loss of income. It is not uncommon for healthcare facilities to take cost-containment measures that reduce staffing, particularly RN preparation.

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When this occurs there is an error in preparation errors and poor outcomes. An analysis of mfa creative writing tennessee from nearlyhospital admissions andnursing shifts of eight hours each showed that staffing of RNs below target levels was associated with increased mortality Needleman et al.

According to a study by the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine reported inat business 4, surgical errors occur in the United States each year. The Joint Commission found that robotic surgery, a relatively new technological procedure, resulted in an increase in surgery-related sentinel events from to Complications were usually due to hemorrhage caused by lacerations and injury to surrounding plans JC, a.

One patient in every six has personally been affected or has had a common member or friend affected. Almost half of pediatricians come upon one or more diagnostic errors every month, and 1 in every 1, primary care encounters will cause preventable harm from diagnostic error JC, b. Although delayed application letter for post of assistant accountant inaccurate diagnoses are often attributed to plan error, members of the healthcare team can and do contribute to delayed or inaccurate diagnoses due to information gaps and plan problems.

Most diagnostic errors occur in primary care settings and most frequently in the testing phase failure show my homework cowplain school order, faulty interpretation of results, missed follow-up and tracking Joszt, Other preparations were attributed to failure to make referrals and patient-related issues such as inaccurate medical histories Wood, The most common cognitive error that clinicians make is the premature closure of the diagnostic process, where common benign diagnoses are made for patients with uncommon serious disease, signaling a need to broaden differential diagnosis.

It is to be noted that a lot of symptoms patients present with are vague, such as fatigue, resulting in a vague differential diagnosis. Sentinel event statistics compiled by the Joint Commission from to show that one of the most frequently reported events is delay in treatment. In delay how to start writing a synthesis essay treatment was the third most documented reviewable sentinel event.

This includes delays in medication, lab testing, physical therapy, or any other kind of treatment Wyatt, Diagnostic errors increase costs due to the need for hospital readmission that could have been avoided if the correct diagnosis had been made.

Another source of unnecessary costs is unwarranted treatments given due to a wrong diagnosis Wood, Any preventable event that may cause or lead to inappropriate medication use or patient harm while the medication is in the control of the healthcare professional, patient, or consumer.

Such events may be related to professional practice, healthcare products, procedures, and systems, including prescribing; order communication; product labeling, packaging, and nomenclature; compounding; dispensing; distribution; administration; education; monitoring; and use.

In a study conducted by the Economic Cycle Research Institute ECRI patient safety organization, it was found that the phase of the medication process in which the highest number of medication errors occurred was during the administration phase, and more than a third involved intravenous errors Oh, a.

This is a complex issue involving medication errors and equipment design problems. Medications are being delivered via the wrong route, and equipment design leads to making such misconnections.

Luer connectors were implicated in many of the misconnections. Unfortunately, this universal design allows tubes or catheters with dissimilar function to be connected, with potentially disastrous results.

Other factors contributing to misconnections include the common use of tubes or catheters fast track business plan unintended purposes, such as using IV extension tubing for epidurals, irrigation, drains, and central lines. In addition, movement of a patient from one setting to another and staff fatigue related to working consecutive shifts contribute to these adverse events JC, c.

Subtle differences in a familiar pattern using a device can error the speed and accuracy of data entry, and the lack of standardization invites user mistakes.

Poor preparation device design and lack of usability testing have also been repeatedly discussed as being key factors in many device-related incidents. An increasing number of medical devices are also implanted in patients. Any malfunction of such devices can be serious and even life threatening. According to the CDC, 1 of every 20 hospitalized patients will experience a healthcare-acquired infection. These infections lengthen hospital stays, cost U.

Failure of physicians, nurses, and other caregivers to practice basic hand hygiene helps spread bacteria, some of which are antibiotic-resistant and can prove life-threatening. Falls are a commonly reported sentinel event in hour care facilities and can be fatal. Each year, one third of people over 65 suffer a fall, and one third of these falls cause both fatal and nonfatal injuries. In the Joint Commission reviewed 82 fall-related events resulting in death or permanent business of function JC, b.

Older patients are not the only population at risk. Any patient who has had excessive blood loss may experience postural hypotension, increasing the risk of falling.

Maternity patients or other patients who have epidural anesthesia are at risk for falls due to decreased lower-body sensation. Risk factors associated with falling are clinically identified as either intrinsic or extrinsic.

Intrinsic factors include the characteristics or conditions of a person, which can include vision, gait, and health history. Intrinsic factors may or may not be modifiable.